Table of contents :
germ theory : the doctrine that infectious diseases are of microbic origin.
=> viroses
=> transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs)
=> mycoses
=> helminthiases,
and rarely meningitis
and endocarditis;
mixtures of every type occur, e.g., bacterial
and viral,
bacterial
and fungal,
and protozoan
and viral
caused 2.7 million (4.8%)
2.2 million (4.0%)
1.1 million (1.9%).Contagion : the communication of disease from one individual to another. It may be ...
,
...),
Ancylostoma
duodenale,
Strongyloides
stercoralis,
Sarcoptes
scabiei,
...))(vertical
transmission)
of infected blood or derivatives (transfusion-associated transmission (TAT))
(for parasites with a hematic stage)
of infected organs
joint infections caused by injectable steroidsref;
Pseudomonas
spp.
and Serratia spp.
infections, resulting in meningitis from epidural injections (CDC, unpublished
data, 2002; Contra Costa Health Services, unpublished data, 2002); Burkholderia
cepacia
blood stream infections from intravenous flush (CDC, unpublished data,
2004), and Pseudomonas
fluorescens
blood stream infections from intravenous flush. Regulatory oversight of
compounding pharmacies varies among states. However, compounding pharmacies
are subject to inspection by pharmacy boards, FDA, and accreditation organizations.
The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists and the U.S. Pharmacopeia
have developed guidance and standards that address quality assurance and
sterile preparation of compounded products (American Society of Health-System
Pharmacists. ASHP technical assistance bulletin on quality assurance for
pharmacy-prepared sterile products. Am J Hosp Pharm 1993; 50:2286-98. U.S.
Pharmacopeial Convention, Inc. U.S. pharmacopeia 28 [Chapter 797]. Pharmaceutical
compounding: sterile preparations. Rockville, MD: U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention,
Inc.; 2004:2461-77). In addition, in May 2004, the Pharmacy Compounding
Accreditation Board (PCAB) established a task force to set standards for
a voluntary accreditation board for compounding pharmaciesref.
Companies that manufacture products intended for injection should follow
FDA regulations for ensuring the sterility of these productsref.
Treatment for potential patients should include targeted antimicrobial
therapy and consideration of removing their cathetersref.
,
endotracheal
intubation,
endovenous
catetherism,
urinary
catheterism,
cardiovascular
prosthesis,
surgical
sutures.)ref
(from foods preserved in olive-oil) : incubation = 8-36 days; duration
= days to 1 year
(from pastries, salads, remnants, protein-rich foods) : 1-8 hours (usually
< 6-hour) incubation period; mostly nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal
cramping; lasting for 24-48 hours
(from meat (expecially chicken)) : incubation period 8-22 (12-18) hours
(average 12), more diarrhea; lasting for 24 hours
(from starch-rich foods (e.g. rice, pasta), cereals, sauce, spices, Chinese
restaurants) : incubation period = 30'-5 hours; duration = 6-24 hours,
and more prolonged symptoms are more likely due to the in situ replication
of enteric pathogens
(up to 72 hours)
(from unpasteurized milk and derivatives, salad) : incubation = 1-7 days;
duration = 1-3 days
(from chicken, eggs, meat, fish, milk and derivatives) : incubation = 6-72
hours; duration = 2-3 days
(from animal bowels, field, milk, meat, shellfish, cheese) : incubation
= 1 day-3 weeks
(including multidrug-resistant strains)
and HAV)
: theoretically any infectious organism can be transmittedrefrefref1,
ref2,
ref3
during commercial air travelref
were originally described during outbreaks among American military personnel
during the 1950s. These agents accounted for about 72% of all respiratory
disease and 10% of hospitalization among recruits in 1958. Military outbreaks
tend to involve adenovirus types 4 or 7. Adenoviruses were implicated in
53% of respiratory disease among military trainees during 1996 to 1998.
2 recruits died of adenovirus infection in Illinois in 2000, the 1st fatalities
among military personnel since 1972. A live oral vaccine was released in
1971 for routine use in the military : recent discontinuance of vaccination
has been followed by large outbreaks of acute respiratory diseaseref1,
ref2.
Notable outbreaks:
was 1st isolated from American military personnel in 1944. At the time,
the organism was estimated to account for 68% of "atypical pneumonias"
among recruits. As many as 57% of recruits had evidence of acute infection,
and up to 56% of pneumonia among recruits during the 1960's to 1990's was
ascribed to this organism. Notable outbreaks:
was detected in 21 mineral waters of 11 different brands of European mineral
waters by RT-PCR. All isolated NLV gg I strains have a similarity of 70
to 87% with the common Desert Shield virus (UO4469), and all isolated NLV
gg II strains have a similarity of 89 to 93% with the Camberwell virus
(U46500). The presence of NLV sequences could not be correlated either
with bottle characteristics or with chemical properties like mineralization,
pH, or the presence of carbonic acidref.
In a following study NLV sequences belonging entirely to genogroup II were
detected in 33% of samples without gases analyzed in the range of 10 to
100 genomic equivalents per liter. After 6 months, all samples remained
positive; after 12 months, 90% samples were still positive for NLV sequences,
suggesting that an envelope of proteins surrounds the virus protecting
its RNA and possibly still allowing infectiveness (not tested anyway)ref.
Human faeces are sporadically contaminating the water either at the source
or some time during the bottling procedure. Unpublished evidence suggests
that low levels of the virus in mineral water may give some elderly people
gastroenteritis.
among among injecting drug users (IDUs) in the UK who had 1st injected
in the last 3 years was 18%, double the prevalence among this group in
2000 (9%) and earlier years. Between Apr and Dec 2003, 18 cases of methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus
aureus
(MRSA) blood infection were identified among IDUs. Laboratory tests of
the MRSA isolates show they are different from those associated with healthcare.
Severe group A Streptococcus
spp. (GAS)
reports among IDUs have increased, from less than 10 per annum in the early
to mid-1990s to 160 in 2003. An outbreak of tetanus,
which started with 11 cases reported in 2003, has continued into 2004.
While during 2003 there were also 14 reports of suspected cases of wound
botulismamong
IDUs, 7 of which were confirmed by laboratory tests. Although an effective
needle exchange program to minimize blood-borne infection transfer may
minimize HBV
and HCV,
bacterial infections due to streptococci and staphylococci as well as toxemias
from clostridrial infection (tetanus, botulism) will likely persist, as
they are related to the contaminated drug itself or are already present
on the skin of the userref
: vector of Toxoplasma
gondii
: vector of Dientamoeba
fragilis
,
Borrelia
hispanica
,
Ehrlichia
chaffeensis
USA south eastern states including Virginia and Georgia (also causing tick
paralysis)
.
An “engorgement factor" termed voraxin (a cocktail of 2 peptides
that are upregulated in the testis and vas deferens of fed, but not unfed,
males : they have no effect on female feeding if given alone) transferred
from male ticks to females during copulation not only stimulates the females
to gorge on food, but also stimulates the development of the ovary and
the degeneration of salivary glands, preparing females for the reproductive
tasks ahead. The feeding cycle of adult female ticks is divided into preparatory,
slow and rapid feeding phases. At the transition from slow to rapid feeding,
females reach a 'critical weight' (CW; approx. 10x the unfed weight) that
is characterized by several behavioural and physiological changes. 5 of
these changes were used as criteria to establish a more precise estimate
of CW than we have to date. The CW as defined by re-attachment to the host
was 9x the unfed weight, while for haemolymph ecdysteroid titre, salivary
gland degeneration, ovary weight, oocyte length and oocyte vitellin content
the CW was 10x, 10x, 12x, 12x and 13x, respectively. CW thus varies depending
on the parameter measured. Although previous studies have established the
influence of ecdysteroids on salivary gland degeneration and vitellogenesis,
they also have a role in inhibiting re-attachment to the hostref.
Virgin female will not feed beyond a CW of around 10 times their unfed
body mass, but mated ticks will. There was already evidence that components
of seminal fluid can have important behavioral and physiologic consequences
for females, e.g. in D. melanogaster seminal fluid protein genes
expressed only in males affect female receptivity, ovulation, oogenesis,
sperm storage, sperm competition and mating plug formationref.
It is interesting that sex proteins also occur in noninsect species like
ticks because this suggests that these male factors could be quite ubiquitous.
In the case of the tick, it appears that these sex peptides are acting
in the reproductive interests of both sexes. It's a kind of switch effect
to tell females that they've been properly mated : iIt's only worth starting
to produce eggs and develop your ovaries once you have been mated. If an
effective vaccine can be derived from voraxin, the anticipated results
from reduced feeding would include less salivation, hence reduced pathogen
transmission to the host and a reduction in oocyte development. When normal
mated females were put on a rabbit immunized against voraxin, 74% showed
little interest in feeding, but all mated ticks put on a control, nonimmunized
rabbit engorged normally. So, a vaccine that blocks the action of voraxin
should reduce feeding, argued Kaufman, and hence transmission of tick-borne
pathogens such as the bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantium, which causes
a Rickettsia-like infection in African cattle : it is argued whether voraxin-based
vaccine would achieve better control of ticks than existing vaccines based
on antigens from the southern cattle tick Boophilus microplus
,
Colorado
tick fever virus,
and Francisella tularensis
to humans and for causing tick
paralysis
in Rocky Mountain and western areas of the USA and Canada. Its hosts include
Cervidae,
elk, antelope, grizzly bear, porcupine,
Cynomys
parvidens , and various
Oryctolagus
spp..
,
Francisella
tularensis,
Ehrlichia
chaffeensis
and Anaplasma
phagocytophilum
(also causing tick paralysis)
,
Borrelia
burgdorferi
,
Anaplasma
phagocytophilum
,
Borrelia
burgdorferi,
Rickettsia
helvetica
,
tick-borne
encephalitis virus (TBEV),
Babesia
divergens,
Borrelia
burgdorferi,
and Colorado tick
fever virus
,
Anaplasma
phagocytophilum
,
Rickettsia
rickettsii,
Rickettsia
conorii,
Borrelia
burgdorferi,
Borrelia
theileri,
Ehrlichia
chaffeensis
and Gnathostoma
spinigerum
,
Treponema
carateum
,
Salmonella
typhi,
minor
or non-typhi Salmonella spp.,
Vibrio
cholerae,
polioviruses
vectors of Mansonella streptocerca
